History of India: From Ancient Civilizations to Independence

The Indus Valley Civilization (3300–1300 BCE) was remarkably advanced, with urban planning, sewage systems, and standardized weights. Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa were major cities. Surprisingly, the civilization had no known warfare evidence, indicating a possibly peaceful society.

The Vedic Period (1500–500 BCE) saw the composition of the Vedas, the oldest Hindu scriptures. This era established caste systems and rituals that still influence Indian society today. The Rigveda, the oldest text, contains hymns dedicated to various deities.

The Maurya Empire (322–185 BCE), founded by Chandragupta Maurya, peaked under Ashoka. Initially a fierce warrior, Ashoka converted to Buddhism after the Kalinga War's devastation, promoting non-violence and spreading Buddhism across Asia.

The Gupta Empire (320–550 CE) is known for its advancements in science, mathematics, and arts. Aryabhata, a Gupta-era mathematician, first suggested the Earth rotates on its axis and approximated the value of pi. This period is often called India's Golden Age.

Medieval India saw the rise of various dynasties like the Cholas, known for their naval power and temple architecture. The Delhi Sultanate (1206–1526) brought Persian culture, architecture, and administration methods, influencing Indian society profoundly.

The Mughal Empire (1526–1857) blended Persian, Indian, and Islamic cultures, visible in architecture like the Taj Mahal. Akbar's reign promoted religious tolerance and administrative reforms. The Mughal period also saw advancements in art, literature, and cuisine.

British rule (1858–1947) significantly altered India's economy, society, and infrastructure. The introduction of railways and the English language had lasting impacts. However, colonial policies led to economic exploitation and famines, sparking India's struggle for independence.

Despite extensive excavations, the script of the Indus Valley Civilization remains undeciphered, leaving its language and many aspects of its culture a mystery.